PED 217 - Social Aspects of Sport

Chapter 4

Sport and Social Organization

Baseball’s defensive alignment (infielders, outfielders) and how they are positioned is a sport example of social organization. Each player has specific tasks to perform under particular circumstances. To win, each player must know their responsibilities. This is social organization: without this orderly blueprint, social activity would be chaotic.

Several key characteristics of social organization apply to sport teams as well as society in general.

1. Teams have a goal.
2. Play according to a set of formalized rules. When someone breaks the rules there are fines and or suspensions (income tax evader/missing a team flight).
3. Each position has certain responsiblities and rights.
4. Those who perform well are rewarded socially or materially.

The Oakland Athletic baseball team is very different from the one that won 3 World Series in the 70’s. In spite of the entire player turnover, the basic social organization of the team remained the same (the 4 things listed above). Front office and management may have made some new policies (no facial hair).

There are three levels of social organization

1. Interpersonal: social relationships existing between 2 persons sharing some kind of role relationship with each (player/coach).
2. Group: interactions between groups, such as the NFL players association and the team owners.
3. Societal: Sport is conceived as a social institution that has associations, organizations and groups that organize and regulate activity in the context of sport: sporting goods manufacturers, sport clubs, athletic teams and media could all be included in this group.

An association is a special purpose group constructed to pursue specific goals or objectives such as profit, public service, or entertainment.

In the sport of baseball and it’s history: originally professional teams were owned by the players. Before the formation of the National League in 1876, pro players moved from one team to the other. But as baseball became more successful, more organization was needed. Soon the players allowed the owners and front offices to take care of the off field business. In 1880 the owners insisted that the players sign contract that gave the owners control over the players’ destinies.

When the American League was formed around 1900, players were able to choose between the two leagues, so owners were bidding for players. Because it was soon to cost the owners a lot of money, they decided that they would not bid for players from outside their league (a term today called collusion: when a free agent was not signed because the owners had a gentlemen’s agreement). The players became a powerless bargaining group.

But today sport franchises are associations-seeking to make profits while providing entertainment. Governing bodies of sport are also considered associations. (The NCAA).

What are the functions of sport?

1. Socioemotional-the sport’s effect on the social and psychological states of individuals which has 3 dimensions:
   1. Cathartic: views sports as a physical form in which frustration, conflict, anxiety, tension, and aggression can be expressed in socially acceptable ways.
   2. Sport may bring feelings of belonging and a sense of togetherness.
   3. Its ritual: sport seasons and the championships that punctuate them flow regularly through our lives (the Kentucky Derby, Indy 500, and World Series).

These events can bring security in a changing world. Baseball games were continued after 9-11 because it was good for us to get our minds off things for awhile.

2. Integrative- taking the individual and making them a group with a common goal or perspective. The opponent becomes the out group or archrival. Spectators are a part of this group as well. Rivalries tend to lean people toward one team or the other, and through things such as banners, clothing, etc. they show their devotion.
3. Political-the use of sport as a tool to demonstrate power. Some small nations spend a great deal of money to have their athletes in the Olympic Games. In 1980 the U.S. boycotted the Olympics in Moscow (due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan: President Carter felt it would severely hurt their economy if we didn’t go), and in 84 the soviets boycotted the Olympics in L.A.
4. Mobility- This function centers on sport as a status escalator. For some, sports are a pipeline out of the ghetto, or wrong side of the tracks. It is not a good mobility channel because less than 1% of all high school basketball players will play in the NBA.
5. Socialization-sports are believed to socialize participants towards desirable social values and personality characteristics as leadership, cooperation, and respect for rules, sportsmanship (video), achievement drive, and self control.
6. Value receptacle-the way values are mirrored by sport: they reflect and reinforce the values that society holds important.
7. Safety valve-athletics provide an arena in which hostility, violence, and aggression are permitted.

Institutions develop in one of two ways:

1. They happen naturally and spontaneously in the routine course of social interaction. College athletics, once run by students, had to eventually be taken over by administrators to control it.
2. They can be enacted: deliberately formed. Examples here are American Gladiators, Battle of the Network Stars, and the Superstars, as well as roller derby. They are enacted for money. The X games were created and financed by ESPN.

The institution of sport has social positions with roles. Lists of them are provided on page 87. Everyone has a status and a unique role to play. The professional athlete’s role is to perform well, practice, be in good shape, show good sportsmanship, and abide by the rules.

An example of athletes not playing to their roles were Tommy Smith and John Carlos at the Olympics in Mexico City in 1968. When they were on the medal stand they dropped their heads and raised fists into the air during the Star Spangled Banner to call attention to racial inequality.

Role Set

Players who refuse to follow the rules are referred to as deviants (people who depart from social expectations).

Roles are not straightjackets: they define a range of acceptable behaviors, so some leeway is permitted. Star performers usually have some weird behaviors, so they are allowed greater departure from the norms. However, too much deviation (Pete Rose, Woody Hayes) will end in dismissal or being tarnished. Roles are also negotiated: rarely do two people perform the same role identically.

Role strain: In the course of someone’s occupation they may be subject to pressures and strains that come from conflicting expectations: this is known as role strain. A baseball manager has to make decisions and discipline players, yet they expected to be sensitive to the needs of their players. Most coaches suffer some role strain due too many demands and too little time.

Role conflict: A great example here is of the student athlete: they have to attend class and study for exams, but the athlete role takes away a great deal of time and adjustments have to be made. In Division I schools the athlete role often takes priority over the student role.

Ascribed positions: secured involuntarily: in sport a short person has limitations and is ascribed to certain sport positions.

Achieved positions are things that we succeed at that we had a choice to do.

Scientific Depictions of the Athlete in Individual Sports

Participants must secure their own financial backing. Boxers and wrestlers need sponsors and agents, and bowlers and golfers must maintain their membership in professional organizations.

Boxing is the classic example of someone being exploited. They come from low economic backgrounds a great deal of the time. They have to have a sponsor, a trainer, and a manager. They have to pay for training and travel. The poorly educated boxers have had to pay a great deal of money to their sponsors and handlers due to poor management. Very few have had a lot of money after their career. Many minorities have moved up the social ladder, but very few have saved any money. Unless you are a heavyweight fighter or a big name in the sport, your purses will be less significant. (Joe Louis video).

Golf: There are many golfers who have made it big, winning a lot of tournaments with big purses, but there are 90% of the golfers, the rabbits (those who have not made it) live from week to week for a chance to make the big money.

In 1996 190 of the 420 players on the PGA earned nothing (45%), and about the same percentage did not earn enough money to even cover their expenses. The ideal training process means hitting 600 balls a day. That is usually 4 hours in the morning, and 4 hours at night. Most of the golfers on the tour have to qualify for each tournament. The journeymen players have to begin their week on Monday trying to qualify for each tournament, and if they make it all the way to the final round, they play on Sunday.

Scientific Depictions of the Athlete: Team Sports

These athletes have a relatively short career, with an average being about 4-7 years. Most players retire before age 30 and often do not play long enough to qualify for a pension. They usually are not remembered by the general public as well. The highly paid and widely publicized athletes remind us of the money that is in team sports. Once these people are finished with their careers only 42% work in positions completely separate from the sports world.

Some athletes find the transition from professional sports to the real world too difficult (stories on page 97).

When asked how they saw themselves many major league baseball players believed they are like the average worker and did not see themselves like they were superstars. They believe they are similar to the average worker in values, intelligence, personality, and money is the key reason they are playing, not for the fun or prestige. Baseball players believe their job is exciting yet is full of undesirable things such as travel, separation from families, and job security.

When ex-players were asked about the positives and negatives of their job as baseball players, the positives outweighed the negatives. They retired basically because they were no longer good enough or had injuries that seemed to linger (only 15% of the players said this).

Football players however, said injuries were the key reason as to why they retired (33%) and most of them have a permanent injury to this day, mainly because the game is more violent. Interestingly, the benefits are not as good as baseball players. At age 55, a baseball player who played 12 years would receive 64,500 dollars annually, and a football player would receive 28,000 dollars.

Several factors have been identified as easing retirement adjustment:

1. Being able to do things outside of the sport.
2. Retiring voluntarily.
3. Having a degree or transferable skill.
4. Having a social support network.
5. Preparing in advance for the post sports world.
6. Having an outlook that does not place one’s total role identity in sports.