PED 217 - Social Aspects of Sport

Chapter 6

Sport and Social Deviance

The goal of socialization is to produce individuals who abide by society’s rules.

Deviance is any thought, action, or feeling that runs contrary to social standards or expectations. Deviation can be a positive, such as the initiation of the fosbury flop was a deviance to what was normally done in the high jump.

Social deviance is a concept that involves cheating, criminality, chemical dependency, sexual immorality, gambling.

We tend to focus more on negative deviance. (page 140)

Deviance in sports stems from several sources:

1. Sometimes it emerges unintentionally (someone does not know the rules).
2. When the rules are contradictory, or misunderstood.
3. When the norms are known, it is a reflection of strains and pressures experienced in various social settings.

STRUCTURAL SOURCES OF SPORT DEVIANCE

Some sociologists propose the very structure of sport promotes deviance by encouraging rule infractions.

The structure of college athletics has been left intact, with no major changes. The rigid system in which rules and policies affecting student athletes and enacted and imposed without any input from the student athletes themselves. Athletes are kept for 40-60 hours per week, with no real off season.

1. Incompatible value orientations
   The overriding value atmosphere of sport is ironic (It’s not whether you win or lose, it’s how you play the game//////winning is not the most important thing, it’s the only thing-Vince Lombardi.)
2. Inconsistency of values and norms
   Given the priority of winning and the restrictions placed on the amount of practice time allowed for college and high school teams(in college the rule is 20 hours per week), it’s not surprising that teams have unofficial practices before practice even begins.
3. Role conflict vs. role strain
   Coaches are expected to cultivate discipline, yet they are expected to be sensitive to their players as both individuals and as representatives of different ethnic, racial, and social class backgrounds (Sandy Koufax would not pitch on Jewish holidays).

In studying deviance in sports one must consider what and whose norms are being broken. Many tactics among football players (holding, tripping) are not only condoned but encouraged, despite the fact the rules forbid them.

Sport deviance varies by:

1. Time-the first Olympic runners ran in the nude.
2. Place-Zuni Indian runners do not try to outrun their opponents.
3. Situation- a boxer trying to put away another fighter is perfectly proper.
4. Social status- Jimmy Connors and John McEnroe developed reputations by pushing their actions to the limit, and were very rarely penalized.

EUFUNCTIONS AND DYSFUNCTIONS OF SPORT DEVIANCE

Negative

1. Widespread deviance creates conflict, tension, and unpredictability. Coaches such as Bobby Knight and Woody Hayes have short tempers and poor behaviors that create problems for officials, university presidents, and alumni.
2. Deviance may channel scarce and costly resources into social control concerns
3. Deviance may have the consequences of undermining support by members of an organization or the society at large
4. Rampant deviance can disrupt the social organization of society or of an institution.

Positive

1. deviance can encourage unity and cohesiveness (look what a natural disaster brings out in people).
2. The negative sanctions meted out to deviants serve to define what is socially proper, appropriate and tolerable
3. Deviance can function as a safety valve. Frustration, disappointment, and anger are common reactions to one’s goals being thwarted.

   Certain types of deviance may permit people to express their discontentment without disrupting the entire social fabric. A fistfight in hockey:

   1. engages in intimidation
   2. helps avoid one’s career being terminated due to an opponent’s assault.
4. deviant behavior may serve as a reminder of the kinks in the social armor.

The Anomic Theory

Every sport contest has a winner and a loser. Someone is bound to not win, so individuals will employ various means (cheat) to achieve the goal of success. When goals are not easily achieved, social pressure to engage in cheating become a possibility.

There are 5 adaptation roles in this theory:

1. conformity- they accept both the culturally prescribed goals and the means for achieving those goals. Athletic personnel are involved in a social environment encouraging obedience to rules. Almost all players at one point commit rule infractions (intentional foul in bb). These deviant acts that are not serious are referred to as ordinary deviance.
2. Innovation- they accept the goals but alter the means for obtaining them (you may not practice on Sunday but you can have an “optional practice”).
3. Ritualism- they reject the cultural goals (win at all costs), but emphasizes participation (It’s not whether you win or lose, but how you play the game). Games include hackeysack, frisbee, and other new games that develop happy people who can avoid competition.
4. Retreatism- these people reject the emphasis placed on competition, sexism, violence, elitism, etc. People who have had a negative experiences with sport also represent this group.
   The most important thing they do is to insure that the child gets the right start by seeing the participation is fun and enjoyable.
5. Rebellion- these people substitute new forms of a sport. An example would be to remove dodgeball and instead play sockball.

Use of drugs in Sports

What is the extent of steroid use in the NCAA and NFL?

1. What do the tests reveal? Surveys go from 25-67%
2. What do the athletes say? About 2.5%
3. What is the true state of affairs? When asked to project how bad it is, 80% say it’s a problem.

In recent history, it was the drugs and banned substances disclosures at the Pan-American Games in Venezuela that blew the lid off amateur use.

Olympic policy forbids practically all drug use. However in past years many, including soviet gymnasts.

Evidence from drug testing at the collegiate level indicates the use of drugs is not excessive (outside the lines video). As of 1995, less than 1% were declared ineligible based on positive drug tests, and the majority were for steroids.

Is drug use among athletes worse than any other group? Many suggest it may be because athletes are very much into their bodies, and it keeps them making money.

Gambling in Sports

A poll in 1989 said:

1. 81% of adults gamble
2. 31% do it weekly
3. 23% of college students do once per week.
4. money spent is between 20-100 billion
5. 39% is on football

It has grown because:

1. legalization of bingo, lotteries
2. point spreads and betting odds are reported
3. there are more teams over wider geographical areas
4. it’s a victimless crime

The Pete Rose saga (video) brought to public awareness that major league baseball will not tolerate gambling on the game, and the penalties will be severe.

Gambling addiction is considered no different than drug or alcohol addiction as far as a social concern.

There are positive functions of gambling:

1. it leads to increased productivity because it takes overtime to pay for losses from gambling.
2. it leads to the necessity of gambling establishments hiring more help.
3. it serves as an avenue of upward mobility for some people.
4. gambling money provides revenue for education (no taxes in Las Vegas), roads, and conservation.
5. increases bank transactions.
6. it increases opportunity for counselors, social workers, psychologists
7. it increases attendance at games because gamblers go to games.

Negatives of gambling:

1. it destroys the family system..
2. it leads to a reduction of work efficiency.
3. it produces emotional and physical consequences.
4. it leads to crimes in regards to sports gambling (point shaving)
5. increases the cost of the mental health care system.
6. gambling is linked to criminal activity.
7. the criminal justice system burdens taxpayers.
8. causes insurance company fraud.

Crime and the athlete

The FBI says there are two types of offenses:

1. Crimes against the person (violence)
2. Crimes against property (theft)

There are also victimless crimes (forging checks)

Movie: Catch me if you can

Athletes who run afoul of the law used to escape being prosecuted, but recently we have seen some going to trial (KOBE). Babe Ruth could have been charged with rape on a number of occasions. (biography on his life). No longer do athletes gain from being famous in a court of law: it can now be a negative against them. Years ago it was impossible to convict them, but now they are being found guilty or having reduced charges that they agree to.

Domestic Violence-male college student athletes are responsible for a significantly higher percentage of sexual assaults that are reported. There has been found to be a connection between violence against women and sports viewing (super bowl Sunday is one of the most violent days of the year, and hotline calls are way up on Mondays in the fall.

Those who disagree on the causes of criminal behavior:

Catharsis theory-aggression lessens further aggression. The athlete is less likely to commit violent acts, because sports provides them with a constructive outlet for feelings of frustration, hostility, and aggression.

Social Learning theory-athletes who are conditioned to behave aggressively on the field are more prone to aggressive behavior off the field.

Violence in Sports

With the nature of some sports, the skills required to achieve victory, the strategy and tactics, and the rules literally demand violent actions. The irony of sport violence is the fact that fans and players endorse it. Today it has reached epidemic proportions.

The history of violence in sports:

1. In the days of the Roman Coliseum: gladiators dueled in mortal combat.
2. The ancient Greeks passed a law allowing men to kill each other, provided it was done for entertainment.
3. Theogenes of Thasos killed more than 800 opponents in 20 years.
4. 500 boxers have died since 1940.
5. The National Hockey League defended fighting as a well established ingredient for the economic well being of the game. If there is no violence, it wont be the same game. We don’t promote it, but we do tolerate it until the public is not happy about it.

The Bruins/Northstars game in 1981 had 406 minutes in penalties and 12 player ejections. Teams carry players on their rosters who are so called enforcers, or team policemen, or even goons.

How does the public feel about violence?

1. People feel it has a negative influence on young children.
2. People believe it adds to the excitement value of contests, others thinks it detracts from and corrupts the true spirit of sport.
3. The fans enjoyment of the contest is positively correlated with the amount of violence in the contest itself.

Why is there so much emphasis on aggression

1. High levels of hostility (treat one’s opponent as a deadly enemy) are crucial for success in some competitive sports. Lombardi: to play this game (football) you must have fire in you, and there is nothing that stokes fire like hate.
2. Aggression occurs in sports because of the sexism that exists in our society. Men are taught to be domineering. The young lad is conditioned to muscular and psychic aggression. Toughness, aggression and winning are portrayed as ideal values.

There are three theories for violence in society and sports:

1. Biological- also known as the drive-discharge model. It claims that the intent to harm or injure others is part of our makeup. We are programmed for aggression
2. Psychological-the frustration-aggression hypothesis: whenever an obstacle stands in the way of potential goal achievement, a common consequence is aggression.
3. Social Learning-the cultural pattern model- which maintains that aggressive behavior is learned, like other behaviors, through reward and punishment. Once it is rewarded (money or praise) there is a chance it will be continued.

A hockey player who had a bad cut from a puck when he was 8 and bled the entire practice: his dad kept all of his 100 stitches.

Do sports events increase aggression and hostility in spectators?

Social learning theorists say if we see it we will imitate it. Oakland Raider fans and Philadelphia Eagle fan are the worst in football. There is even a court of law with a judge inside of the stadium in Philly, where people are tried for offenses during the game.

Hostile spectators will watch games that are violent: aggression tends to breed aggression. Violence in sport is learned: we are not born with it.

Causes of Sport Violence

1. Victory in sport is linked to financial success: to achieve victory it may be necessary to reduce the competitive edge of one’s opponent.
2. There is a highly competitive nature of sport teams.
3. Certain sports encourage and reward aggressive play.

What can be done to slow the rise of violence?

1. There have been rules instituted to limit potential injury causing acts (baseball-brush back pitches, basketball-fines if you leave the bench, and adding a referee).
2. Less emphasis from the media, on the violent aspect of sport.

A problem exists here in that if you reduce it to much people may not come to watch. Besides sports, movies, cartoons, and news reports are heavily laced with violence. Before we deal with sports we may need to deal with society.

Another irony is: you cant have boxing without punching, or football without tackling.