PED 217 - Social Aspects of Sport

Chapter 9

Sport and Gender

Traditional images of women and men:

Zeus and the admirable male gods were strong, competitive, and physical. The female gods, like Demeter, were supportive, passive, and earth mother types. Men were expected to do certain things, and women watched.

Females and femininity were socially associated with nature because of being mothers; men were associated with culture and building civilization.

Women’s inferior morality was kept under social control through marriage to a righteous man, the productive members of society.

In the mid 19th century, middle class women were seen as sickly, weak, and frail. Their health and personality were controlled by her “debilitating” reproductive organs. So they had to be confined and prevented from doing anything that may damage the reproductive system. Even higher education could be physically dangerous (too much brain development would wear down the uterus).

In the early 20th century: women were physically inferior to men because of a lack of a penis. Social organization of American life was patriarchal (male dominated) and was basically unequal.

By the mid 1900’s women demonstrated that they could be productive in the work force. The images of men and women were and are slowly being modified and gender roles are changing, although women on average only make 75% of what a man makes in a full time job.

Women were excluded from sports for a long time due to the socialization of what was proper behavior (unfeminine). Also women were excluded politically from trying to achieve goals and values of sport to maintain the woman’s position as a second class citizen.

Women historical participation in sport:

Although they were forbidden to participate or even view the Olympic Games of ancient Greece, woman established their own program of sports competition, which they named the Heraen Games after Hera, the wife of Zeus.

The colonial ladies were active in dancing, skating, sleighing, and spectatoring horse races, and boat races.

In the mid 1800’s it was ok for social contact only for women to participate in croquet, bowling, tennis, golf, and archery.

By the late 19th century the belief that exercise was harmful to women was being challenged. They were seen to participate in swimming, basketball, bicycling, tennis, and golf. However the culture still saw the woman as pale and fragile.

In the 1930’s coed sports were replaced by separate sports and participation. Athletic clubs for ladies organized competitions in many sports. Colleges began to offer programs in phy ed, partly to maintain the health of students and to disprove beliefs about females being weak and frail.

Most women sports in college took place within the walls of women’s colleges. Women’s events were being added to the Olympics, and some women (Babe Didrikson Zaharias) became sports stars.

College sports were still struggling because of the movement of the Women’s Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation, which reduced games and held telegraphic contests (teams played on their campus and telegraphed the results to the opponent), as well as holding play days. Their philosophy was:

1. for as many women to play as possible
2. women’s sports should be modified versions of men’s sports
3. sports were mainly for fun and not for profit
4. not to sacrifice a person’s health for the sale of participation in athletic competition.

As a result of this philosophy, Olympic hopefuls received no help at the college level to train. The number of women’s teams began to decline as the emphasis was placed on everyone playing.

World War II had a permanent impact because women were now in the work force and it was found they could do it well. The women liberation movement emerged from this period as well as the belief they could participate in many of the major sports (A League of Their Own)

By the 1950’s the Division of Girls and Women’s Sports began to encourage varsity competition and national championships. The mid 70’s were a period of massive growth due to the changing of traditional gender roles leading to the change in the traditional role of sports for women.

Gender Socialization

1. The social roles of what men and women are supposed to be like also affected their sport participation. 50% of men believe winning isn’t everything, it’s the only thing, where 16% of the women felt this way.
2. The American woman learned that being an acceptable feminine woman did not involve proving themselves in competition, and women who did were certainly not the feminine ideal. Many women did not want to participate in many sports due to this socialization. Althea Gibson said it hurt to hear other women talk about how unfeminine she was and they look at her as if she were a freak. The joy and satisfaction of sport always was simmered by social stigma (an athletic woman was not feminine), including lesbianism.
3. The Victorian theory, based on medical myths said:
   1. strenuous activity leads to childbearing difficulties
   2. women’s reproductive organs are subject to damage
   3. women’s bone structure is more fragile
   4. women get unattractive bulging muscles

There are physiological differences (see page 255), but it has been mostly cultural images that has made women’s participation in sport unequal and limited.

Structural discrimination: A situation in which the very structure and organization of sporting activities result in unequal treatment for a particular group.

Women have been structurally prohibited from participating in certain sport activities. In the Olympics in 1988 the ratio of men to women was 4 to 1; mainly there are fewer sports for women than men, and many other competitions banned women (the Boston Marathon did until 1968). The limited opportunities were also the result of lesser funding for programs, inferior facilities, equipment and training.

Because of this inequality, Title IX emerged, which is the 1972 amendment to the Civil Rights Act that prohibits sex discrimination in educational institutions receiving federal funds.

The emergence of black women in sport has differed from that of the white woman. Black women have excelled but have rarely been seen in country club sports. Why?

1. They have been at the lower end of the economic hierarchy. What sports are we talking about mainly?
2. Racial discrimination prevented black women from gaining access to sports participated in by white women.
3. The cultural image of femininity has been defined by whites. A racist culture did not defined black athletic women as real women.

There are also a very low number of minority women in sports leadership roles: 5% of college coaches and administrators are minority women, and black women only consist of 11% of basketball head coaches.

There is a masculine hegemony that exists in sports: where sports are organized to reflect men’s physiology rather than women’s.

The paradox of women’s sport: masculinity is a highly valued characteristic, but women with these characteristics are not highly valued (tom boy).

The Army has a regulation 30 inch stride when running. Women with shorter strides are more prone to injury.

A fourth grade boy will lose to another boy because he has more skill and ability. If he loses to a girl, it was because the rules were unfair or girls do not play fair.

Sport influences gender stratification:

1. Women as second class citizens: There is not a pole vault for women, nor is there a football league (video), or baseball. There are also traditional cultural definitions reflected by the media (lesbianism). The new cultural tie between beauty and sport encourages women to become participants, but men participate to achieve and win, not to be pretty (Anna).
2. Sport as a masculinity rite: the coming of age for the American male often includes participation sports (a 6th grader is asked if he tackled anyone in the game today). Sport is an important means of socializing boys into their appropriate gender roles, and the best way to be popular with girls.

Fathers attempt to reproduce traditional masculinity in their sons and to encourage them to learn through sports how to be successful men. Sports teach boys how to get, and one gets by winning in the most popular sports, by defeating someone else. Male college athletes stress winning more than female athletes do.

Expression and emotion are not valued, physical pain is denied and is a symbol of toughness. Feelings are not important, and violence is normal. (This has actually created a role conflict for boys/men) Sports can be a “school for sexism” where it encourages exclusion of women and male bonding.

Exclusionist male sports may be partially responsible for male violence against women in society. There is a correlation between even watching a football game and violence against women.

Current Issues

1. Increasing participation and funding:

   Title 9 has been credited with the massive influx of women in sport from the mid 70’ until today. Between 1980 and 1982, young women accounted for 35% of high school athletes compared to 7% in 1970.

   Before Title 9, there was no such thing as a women’s athletic scholarship. In the mid 90’s there were over 10,000. By 1980 women accounted for over 30% of all participants in college athletic programs. Now it is close to 50%, but some court cases hurt women’s sports and Title 9. Grove City College v. Bell focused on whether an entire school should conform to Title 9 or just the department receiving federal funds. It was ruled that only specific programs receiving money from the federal government was inconsistent with the original intent of the law. This has been a negative for women’s sports ever since.

   Gender equity has emerged as one of the most controversial concerns in college athletics. The intent is to provide equal opportunity for female athletes. This has been a difficult process to perform. To be gender equitable 3 criteria must be met:

   1. the same number of male and female athletes in all sports
   2. expanding opportunity for female athletes

   3. accommodating the sports interest of males and females

   The problem is that as budgets decrease adding opportunities for women mean eliminating programs for men, to fund the new women’s team.

The root of this problem is men’s football because there is no comparison sport with the numbers involved. 85 football scholarships mean 17 scholarships in 5 women’s sports. Football coaches want it to be eliminated from the formula because it also brings in the most money of the college sports programs. There have been many men’s programs eliminated over the years to comply with Title 9, including baseball at the University of Wisconsin.

Inequality continues to exist due to the spending levels of football and the inability to find a comparison sport for women.

2. Changing attitudes

Although the gap in performance and standards between men and women continue, it has narrowed since the 70’s. In running and swimming women are at 90% of the men’s records. Women’s long distance times have dropped considerably, while men’s have stayed the same.

There are 2 theories as to why this has happened:

1. cultural-it’s a psychological barrier
2. physiological- male superiority was attributed to physical differences.

3. Professional possibilities: women’s sports teams are still not well established, but they have improved. Many attempts at leagues in basketball and softball died after a few years. A growing concern for women looking for careers in sport is the declining number of coaching opportunities

Building equality into sport

The critical perspective: Why should women want to participate in activities and organizations that have historically excluded them and operated on the assumption of female inferiority? This view suggests real equality for women in sports requires rejecting the view of winning at all costs, and build a more humane system.

The assimilationist perspective: The emphasis is on gaining access (Title 9) to the world of sport as it is.

Title 9 has been battled over for years. The NCAA spent over 250000 dollars to lobby against its passage, and ignored it when equal rights were demanded in the 60’s.

Then the AIAW was formed to organize national tournament competition. The NCAA later decided to hold 12 women’s national championships beginning in 1981, and a power struggle began. The AIAW was based on the critical perspective (participation), while the NCAA had its traditional sports and views (the assimilationist perspective). Eventually because the AIAW did not have enough money to fund programs, by 1982 it folded and all the schools were into the NCAA.